Competitve advantage Essay

â€Å"A firm that already has sustained competitive advantage in its domestic market may not have the same advantage in an overseas market. Discuss the issues that this creates for a firm, and how it might exploit its resource advantages to secure successful market entry and create competitive advantage in a new overseas market.† With the global trade network more integrated, according to Pearce and Robinson (2009), firms tend to enter foreign market to gain more profit due to the maturity of domestic market, excess capability, and potential purchasing power in foreign market. Therefore, as a firm has already achieved success in its domestic country it might consider enter a new market. Before it operates in a new market, it has to consider the barrier of market entry, such as the barrier of political, social, economic or technology in a new market. And as foreign entry decision (Peng, 2009) model presents three aspects: where, when and how should be considered before enter in a new market. In addition, as a manager of a company should adjust its competitive advantage to adapt different market. Based on the study of Hill (2013), changes in the forces which include macroeconomics, social, technological, global, political and legal, and demographic may give great influence in competitive force model. Therefore, the ability of a firm to solve problems by the impact of different forces then build new competitive advantage by its resource advantage and competences significant as it enters a new overseas market. This essay will present some specific example of the firms which may enter a new overseas market and face different issues during the process of entering a new market and offer solutions to each issue. Price wars are common in any industry which is a common issue to be considered before enter a new overseas market, moreover, base on five force framework, in order to increase the ability of competing with rivals in industry, the ability of rivalry among competitors is one of the forces. Primark is one of the most successful fashion retailers in British. Its competitive advantage is from its low price. In another word, it gains profit from the cost leader strategy. (Hooley & Piercy ,2008). India is one of the biggest developing countries in the world. It has large population wh ich means India has a huge potential market for Primark. As reported by  BBC (2013) Recently, India government has opened up its retail market to foreign companies to stimulate its economic. Assume Primark enter the market of India, it may face competitive rivals, such as H&M and Gap. It has to maintain its competitive advantage and improves the ability of efficiency of cost .However, as a company which relies on low cost supplier, first of all, it has to decrease the barging power of supplier, thanks to the large population in India, it is not only providing a huge market for Primark but also offering a powerful labor resource to it. It offer an exactly social force to exploit its resource advantage and strategic fit in market of India.(Grant,2007) According to value chain study, reducing the cost of individual cost driver and reemployment could offer cost advantage to a firm. (Thompson & Martin, 2010) Primark could outsource to different local manufactures and create competition among them. In order to reduce the bargaining power of local supplier, Primark should deduce the dependence of a certain supplier. A good experience of Wal-Mart (Peng, 2009) could be used to Primark, it set up a policy within company which prevents any supplier offer more than 3% of its purchase. Furthermore, Primark should constrain those factories by contracts to prevent them copy the product and become both supplier and rivals. Primark might gain profit from controlling the cost and matching the opportunities in the external environment eventually enter a new overseas market. Before enter a new overseas market, the culture is always a considerable problem for a firm. Different countries have different belief, values, and behavior depend on their national culture.(Rugman & Collison) Furthermore, a firm should think about where to enter, base on Institution-based considerations on country risk.(Peng, 2009) It should evaluate the culture distance from its domestic country to a oversea market, moreover, taking advantage of common cultural, language, and historical ties.(Makino& Tsang,2011) If a firm enters a different cultural environment from its domestic and it may lose its competitive advantage. Therefore, when a firm enters a new market, it should not only focus it competitive advantage but also match the requirement of local people and adjust its strategy to current situation. Disneyland built the sixth Disneyland in Shanghai and it will operate in 2015. Consider it is as a cross culture theme park, it should learn the experience of other Disneyland in other countries. French Disneyland (Trigg, 1995) which has not reach its  expectation. It failed in France because it used English as official language in it which annoyed French, alcohol was forbidden in French Disneyland and this policy against the behavior of local people. What is more, it had conflict with farmers for land expropriation and caused opposition in France. Another example to support the argument is Tesco. Tesco lost 1.8 billion in USA, a lot of factors led to its failure, and one of the most important factors is Americans having different eating habits from European. Tesco has not considered it and eventually fail in a different culture environment. In order to gain profit in different culture markets, a firm should improve its abilities of adaption to a specific national market and blend global standardization and local adaption. For example, McDonald’s gained great competitive advantage from its global strategy (Grant, 2010). Although the menus of McDonald’s include globally items, likes happy meals, however, in different counties it ha s locally items. Considering about local relevance and find a balance point between global standardization and local adaption could maintain competitive advantage in a new culture market. In addition, to compete with first-mover in a new market is an important risk to a firm. Late entrants may face entry barrier which set by first-mover and hard to gain market share. Furthermore, the relationship between first-mover and local government maybe stable. (Peng, 2009) Kindle e-book reader is an electronic product was launched by Amazon from 2007 which linked to the electronic books. If Kindle enters Korean market, it would face some powerful competitors. The most competitive rivals is Galaxy Tab of Samsung as well as it have already gained great market share in Korea. In order to compete with Samsung, differentiation strategy could be used by Kindle. Innovation is the most competitive advantage of the technology industry. In another word, kindle should focus on its unique resource which is the large amoun t of e-resources of Amazon. This tangible source could attract customer and create the demand of customer. By increasing its dynamic capabilities by updating its organizational knowledge, accepting different ideas and developing the blend of tacit and explicit knowledge in a new market. (Wall, et al.2010). Besides, Kindle can evaluate the market of Korea which based on the current situation of Samsung before it enters this market and predicts the potential risk and makes some measures in advance. Moreover, late entrances could  cooperate with the first- mover to share the fixed assets to reduce the cost of entering a new market. As for small-medium companies, one of the biggest problems is the scale of the companies cannot support high risk of entering overseas market and they can afford the huge capital. P.van Dam & Zn. BV is family business with less than 30 staff which exports fresh flower and wholesale company in Netherlands. The competitive advantage of P.van Dam & Zn. BV is flexible to response the requ irement of customer. Customer could order flowers by their official website, telephone or E-mail them and customer can contact specialize staff in each step, in other word, P.van Dam & Zn. BV contact customers personally. It can react rapidly and fit the demand of customers. If it wants to enter UK market, it may export directly since the size of it is really small and it prefer to take whole controlling of distribution. The small scale of entry is suitable for them and the best entry mode of this kind of small companies is exporting. It is not only reducing the cost of entering overseas but also get better control over distribution. (Peng, 2009) After a company enters a new market, According to Industry-based consideration on the degree of competitiveness (Peng, 2009), one of potential risks is substitute. For example, Lipton is one of the most competitive brands in China and became the best sale in tea market in five years. The core competence of Lipton is the sensitivity of the requirement of customer (Chanston, 2012). Lipton invests a lot on researching the tendency of tea and the preferences of customer as well as setting up a data base and in different countries. It combined the tea and the life of target customers together. Base on the VRIO framework (Peng , 2009), value, rarity, robustness and Non-substitutability to keep sustainable competitive advantage, Lipton brings a health and new style of drinking tea to Chinese market which also brings value to its brand. Besides, it is will cost a lot to copy the operating model of Lipton. In addition, the healthy image has been accepted by costumers, some substitutes such as coke, juice can’t take place of it. Therefore, increasing the ability of each element in VRIO framework and improve the sustainable competitive could avoid the threat of potential substitute in new market. In conclusion, this essay has covered some major issues when a firm enters a new market, price issue, culture issue, first-mover issue small-medium size company issue and substitute issue. And give some specific companies as examples to explain how to gain  competitive advantage to response to each issue. For example, Shanghai Disney should blend global standardization and local adaption to get competitive advantage in a new market. A firm should change or improve its competitive advantage as it enter a foreign market, otherwise, it will loss the opportunities and fail in a new overseas market. References: BBC (2013). H&M wins final approval to invest in India. [Online] Available at < http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-25196418> Accessed 4th January 2014. Grant, R (2010) Contemporary strategy Analysis: Text and Cases (7th ed). A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Pubilication Grant, R (2007) Contemporary Strategy Analysis: Concept, Techniques, Applications (6th ed). Wiley Blackwell Edition Hill, J (2013). Theory of Strategic Management (10th ed).International Edition Hooley, G. Piercy, N(2008) Marketing Strategy and competitive positioning(4th ed). Prentice Hall Edition Peng, W(2009) Global strategic management(2th ed). International student Edition Pearce, J.& Robinson, R. (2009). Formulation, implementation& control of competitive strategy (11th ed ). McGraw. Hill international Edition Rugman, A. & Collinson,S (2009) International Business( 5th ed) Prentice Hall Edition. Thompson, J.& Martin, F.(2010) Strategic Management : Awareness and Change(6th ed) South-western Edition Trigg, M. &Trigg, D( 1995) â€Å" Disney’s European theme park adventure: a clash of cultures† Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal. Vol2.No.2. PP.13-22 Makino, S.& Tsang, E(2011) Historical ties and foreign direct investment, JIBS, 42:545-557 Wall, S. Zimmermann, C. Klingebiel, R.& Lange,D. (2010)Strategic Reconfigurations: Building Dynamic Capabilities in Rapid Innovation-based Industries. Mixed sources edition.

The Simple Gift and the Concept of Belonging

Belonging Essay plan 1. Simple Gift Relationships and places interconnect to provide an individual with a strong sense of belonging * Relationships and the concept of Belonging Old Bill and Billy * Genuine relationships anchor individuals in identity, worth and connection * Relationships enrich an individual’s sense of belonging * Billy and old Bill’s relationship helps bring about a positive change in both of them * Their bond brings positive change to the grief-stricken old Bill and provides Billy with a chance for a fresh start and a future in Bendarat.Old Bill provides Billy with advice, guidance and a home. * Billy helps old Bill limit his drinking and smoking addictions and provides him with breakfast in the mornings * Billy said to not walk past the pub, old Bill finds himself walking past Jessies old school the next day instead of going past the pub * â€Å"Hands/shaking/as I walked back to town,/careful not to go past a pub† * Herrick uses enjambment to emphasises how difficult this change is for Old Bill and his desire to keep moving forward rather than continuing to be overwhelmed by his grief Places and the concept of belonging * Throughout the free verse poems of the Simple Gift, there are a series of places that either enrich or destroy an individual’s sense of belonging Longlands Road * Longlands Road does not inspire Billy’s sense of belonging.Billy lived with his alcoholic and abusive father in Longlands road His father created an environment that did not support the feeling of belonging by giving Billy â€Å"hard backhanders† * Billy’s action of throwing rocks upon the roofs of the houses in longlands Road shows the strong negative attitude he has towards his street and all that it represents * â€Å"I throw one rock on the roof/of each deadbeat no hoper/ *hithole downtrodden house in Longlands road, Nowheresville† * Herrick uses descriptive language to emphasis the feeling of alienation that such a place arouses for BillyCarriage 1864 * Billy sets up home in an abandoned freight train carriage, it becomes an important place of belonging and security for Billy * As this carriage is shared with Billy’s friends Old Bill and Caitlin, it creates a positive emotion towards the carriage. * Without the company of Old Bill the carriage would have been very dull and lonely * â€Å"It was like a little cave, a warm, safe little cave†¦.Billy’s cave†, Herrick uses this simile to describe the carriage. * Through the relationship with Old Bill, Billy quickly feels a sense of place and comfort inside it by labelling it â€Å"my motel Bendarat†. * Billy further demonstrates his sense of belonging to the carriage when he gives Caitlin a â€Å"business card† with the carriage as his address. This is a symbolic gesture, which shows Caitlin that he feels this is home for now. 2. Pursuit of Happiness

Lahore Walled City Upgradation

Assignment : Up gradation of walled city LAHORE Conservation of the Urban Fabric Walled City of Lahore, PakistanZachary M. KronINTRODUCTIONThis case study on urban development in the province of Punjab focuses on the Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultant's efforts to create and implement an urban conservation plan for the walled city of Lahore in the early 1980's. With a population of four million in 1992,1  this old quarter of Lahore is under tremendous pressure from commercial and industrial interests, which as yet have little regard for the historic nature of the city. In addition to these active menaces, the city is struggling to integrate new municipal services into its existent tissue without obscuring its visual character. Although few interventions have actually been achieved, several higher profile â€Å"pilot projects† have been carried out in an effort to raise public awareness of the conservation plan. CONTEXTPhysical Lahore is the capital of the province of Punjab, the most fertile area of Pakistan and chief producer of agricultural products for the country. The city is generally arid, except for two months of hot, humid monsoons, and receives less than 20 inches of rain during the course of a year. Historical The earliest credible records of the city date its establishment to around 1050 AD, and show that its existence is due to placement along the major trade route through Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The city was regularly marred by invasion, pillage, and destruction (due to its lack of geographical defenses and general overexposure) until 1525 when it was sacked and then settled by the Mogul emperor Babur. Sixty years later it became the capital of the Mogul Empire under Akbar and in 1605 the fort and city walls were expanded to the present day dimensions. From the mid-18th century until British colonial times, there was a fairly lawless period in which most of the Mogul Palaces (havelis) were razed, marking a â€Å"decrease in social discipline towards the built environment that has continued unabattingly till today. â€Å"2Much of the walled fortification of the city was destroyed following the British annexation of the region in 1849, as both a defensive measure to allow the colonists to better control the populous, and as a commercial enterprise in resale of the brick for new projects. In 1864 many sections of the wall had been rebuilt. Major physical contributions of the British to the old city consisted of piped water and well systems established just outside the former walls. The building of the railroad and a station well outside of the old city set the stage for later expansion. 3Social and Economic A new wave of destruction washed over the city in 1947 following the partition of British Colonial India into the Hindu majority nation of India and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The resulting inter-communal strife destroyed wide areas of the urban fabric, some of which was repaired by the 1952 Punjab Development of Damaged Areas Act. Many of the arriving Muslim families from India moved into the emigrating Hindu residences, although the lower land values of the old city further established the concentration of lower income groups in the city center, with wealthier families residing outside. In the 1950's an organization called the Lahore Improvement Trust attempted to instate a plan for commercial development in the old city, but these efforts were largely without effect. 4Between the early 1970's and '80's, 29% of the old city population moved out. The space left by emigrants from the old city has largely been filled by commercial interests, mostly small scale manufacturers and wholesalers, many of whom have national and international clients and do not serve the local community. The advantages for commercial interests are the readily available cheap labor force among the urban poor, as well as relative anonymity, which facilitates the evasion of most national and local taxation. Advantages for speculative developers lie in the absence of enforcement of building regulations, as well as in cheap plots. The resulting commercial encroachment demonstrates a pattern of abuse of building stock through inappropriate re-use of structures intended for small scale (cottage) industry and residential use, as well as destruction of older buildings replaced with quickly erected, lower quality structures. To the northwest, in the city of Peshawar, and to the east, in Delhi, one can find buildings related in form and age to those in Lahore, although in Peshawar the residential construction is primarily of wood. Although Peshawar was controlled by the Moguls and populated with mosques and gardens as Lahore was during the 16th and 17th centuries, little of it remains to be seen. Peshawar also has it's share of British construction, (including the renovated Mahabat Khan Mosque built under Shah Jehan but largely redone in 1898), and many of the existing residential buildings date from the late 19th century. Like Lahore, the small grain of the urban fabric eft intact can be attributed to the growth of the city within a walled fortification. THE PROJECTSignificance of the Walled City The walled city of Lahore is the product of the cultural influences of at least three major empires in the subcontinent of India: the Mogul Empire, the British colonial presence, and the modern nation-state of Pakistan. As a result of its position along a major trade route, it has also been influenced by many other, less dominant cultures, such as Afghanistan and China. Unlike Peshawar, which has lost much of it's larger scaled architectural past, and Islamabad, which can only boast Modern Monumental architecture of some merit, Lahore contains some of the best of all the empires which have touched it, as well as smaller scale vernacular architecture. In addition to this object value, the walled city plays a central role in the daily functioning of Lahore. It remains a bustling center of commerce and represents the â€Å"living culture† of the city, an enduring continuation of and evolution from a much older way of life. As the city contains many heterogeneous physical attributes, the activities of the walled city include all aspects of urban life: residential, manufacturing, retail, educational, religious, and civic. CONSERVATION PHILOSOPHYThe Lahore Development Authority's  Conservation Plan for the Walled City of Lahore  is a series of recommendations concerning the physical decay of historic structures in the city, the â€Å"visual clutter† of newer structures and infrastructure, and the encroachment of various unregulated elements on the city's fabric. This program of conservation, headed by Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd. (PEPAC) is actually the expansion of a project begun in 1979, the â€Å"Lahore Urban Development and Traffic Study† (LUDTS). This study, undertaken by the Lahore Development Authority (LDA) and funded by the World Bank, identified four areas for improvement. â€Å"1. Urban planning activities, leading to the production of a structure plan to provide a framework for action program within Lahore; 2. Neighborhood upgrading and urban expansion projects, to provide substantial improvements in living conditions for lower income groups; 3. Improvement of traffic conditions in congested parts of the street system of central Lahore: and 4. Improvements to living conditions within the walled city by improving environmental sanitation and providing social support program. â€Å"5Part of LUDTS' findings identified the precarious position of the physical fabric of the city. The report suggested (among other things) that any development and upgrading program that the city initiated should include measures â€Å"to protect national and regional cultural heritage,† and to that end it recommended the development of a conservation plan. The World Bank made the creation of a plan a condition of the first loans to be issued to Lahore. The study identifies some 1,400 buildings within the city as having high architectural or historical value and presents a series of conservation proposals. These recommendations include both conservation steps for the buildings themselves, as well as social and economic programs to halt the causes of their degradation. In general the study suggested the following: 1. Strategic policies and actions to be taken outside the walled city. 2. Planning activities and studies for both the central area and the walled city. . Institutional development including the full utilization of existing resources reinforced with an active training program, and the application of the legislative resources that already exist. 4. Urban management and controls to include production of a â€Å"Manual for Conservation and Building Renewal† and improved maintenance practices. 5. Traffic improvement and mana gement program. 6. Upgrading and enhancing the physical fabric and the urban environment through upgrading the building stock . . . and through upgrading urban services. 7. Redevelopment with concern for conformity with the scale, height, densities and building typologies traditionally characteristic of the walled city to be demonstrated through projects undertaken by public authorities on state land and through regulated private sector activity. 8. Conservation of individual listed special premises or elements. 6CONSERVATION PROGRAM INTERVENTIONSWhile the statement above outlines a general policy approach to the conservation effort, several pilot projects have been more specifically outlined and a handful have been implemented and funded by the World Bank through the Punjab Urban Development Project. The buildings are, in most cases, structures dating from early British colonial times, both residential and commercial, and more monumental structures from the Mogul Empire, although action has only been taken on government owned buildings. One pilot project that has come directly out of this effort is the restoration of the Wazir Khan Hammam (bath house), built in 1638. The bath, which suffered mostly surface damage to the fresco work, is now being re-used as a tourist center with some facilities for computer education for women. While the structure itself was not in any particular risk of irreversible decay, this  hamam  is a particularly important site to the Development Authority because it is located on a popular entrance point for tourists coming to the city. For visitors it is the first logical stopping point on a walk that goes from the impressive Delhi Gate (Image 6) past the Wazir Khan Mosque and the Choona Mandi Haveli Complex to end at the Lahore Fort. This route is also well traveled by locals going to the wholesale cloth and dry goods markets. It seems that the choice of aiming the rather limited resources of the program at this project is an attempt to heighten the community interest in the conservation effort, rather than directly addressing sites with more desperate conservation needs. Additionally, there are several proposals to deal with the conservation of areas surrounding historic monuments. Of particular concern is the area around the Mori Gate, which stands next to the well preserved UNESCO site of the Lahore Fort, and lies between the Fort and the Delhi Gate, immediately adjacent to the newly conserved and re-used Choona Mandi Haveli Complex. While the Fort itself is a vigorously monitored and controlled site, the area immediately surrounding it is â€Å"visually cluttered,† to say the least. One exits the Fort to be confronted by a mass of electrical cables, transformers, and half a dozen steel recycling operations. PEPAC's proposal involves the relocation of the steel traders (whom it claims are operating illegally) to a more suitable location and repopulating the area with a mixture of commercial and residential uses. The area itself does not contain artifacts of particular merit, but is amid a concentration of other historic elements. In their statement of policy and issues, PEPAC refers to the exemplary conservation work done at the Choona Mandi Haveli Complex, and to its re-use as a degree college for women. While this is not a PEPAC project, it is identified as a model of the work they wish to see happening in the city, and claim that the project â€Å"came out of the conservation effort† that they are creating. While it is unclear from the literature who in fact has implemented the particular conservation of the HaveliComplex or what the connection is to the PEPAC effort, it is clear a particular region of the city has been identified as a primary site for conservation efforts. It seems sensible to concentrate on blocks of the city as specific focus areas for limited resources and as showpieces to use to solicit further funding, but it is curious that this is not stated as a strategy i n the group's policy statements. In addition to these concentrated areas of restoration, the main gates to the city have been chosen as pilot projects, several of which have already undergone restoration work. In order to determine how the restored gates should appear, PEPAC searched for clues not only in their existing condition, but also in historical documentation of the gates from the pre-colonial period. In particular, a wealth of information was found in the numerous renderings by French and British explorers from the 17th century who made paintings, drawings and etchings of the sites. After identifying the site and determining the changes that are to occur in the area, the site was â€Å"vacated of encroachers,† who currently occupy the niches, hollows and shelters provided by the wall. Several of the gates have now been restored to their pre-colonial state, but the work has recently been halted due to the cessation of World Bank funding. AUTHOR'S CONCLUSIONThe example of the gates highlights several difficulties faced by PEPAC in the implementation of their conservation project. First, and perhaps most minor, is the fidelity to the historical record that the conservators wish to maintain. Although the accuracy of the sketches can be verified by different views supplied by different artists, it is not necessarily appropriate to restore the gates to the condition they were in during that particular era, especially at the expense of people who may have some claim to residency in portions of the site. A more important criticism is that the definition of â€Å"encroacher† is inadequate. The Prime Minister has attempted to implement a policy to allot property rights to squatters as a way of instilling greater commitment in them to properly maintain the areas they occupy.   However, PEPAC does not qualify the distinction between squatters, â€Å"encroachers,† and residents. Furthermore, 20 million rupees that have been earmarked by the Punjab Urban Redevelopment Project for residents to use for the improvement of their own property was not dispersed due to the inability of the organization to identify legal residents. 9With no clear definition of who is a res ident it will continue to be impossible to make a generalized policy. The total bsence of legal enforcement of property rights further undermines any sense of ownership. An example is the rapacious acts of the speculative developer who buys a building and then digs a second basement, which effectively collapses the neighboring buildings. The owner, without legal recourse that would provide any results, is left with no choice but to sell their ruined plot to the developer, who then erects a cheap, commercial building. 10This dilemma underscores a central conflict in the policy of conservation enacted by PEPAC. On the one hand is the attempt to instate a series of guidelines and regulations which the residents of the city must follow, and on the other hand is the attempt to encourage a sense of ownership, pride and respect among residents for the architecture. The first effectively removes or reduces the choices of the resident in determining the form of their surroundings and relies upon a policy of rule enforcement. The second relies upon the living culture of a place to perpetuate the existing physical culture, although allowing for the changing needs of the people. Unless policy is made concerning ownership and enforcement, these two approaches, which are not necessarily in conflict, will not act in accord, and will each remain ineffectual. It is interesting to note that the areas where the PEPAC conservation effort has been most effective is in exclusively government owned properties: schools, municipal dispensaries, monuments and civic buildings, as well as the homes of police officials. 11In the case of the other projects that have been implemented, PEPAC may be criticized for prematurely starting restoration work before active degradation is stopped, or even slowed. The resurfacing of the Wazir Khan Hamam and work on the area between the Delhi and Mori Gate are a prime example of this, a fairly stable area is being conserved while nearby buildings are being razed for newer construction or crumbling through neglect. (Image 9) However, given the dependency of virtually the entire conservation effort on World Bank funding, it must be a priority for the group to create a visible, finished grouping of conserved buildings in order to solicit further funding. This example of trying to raise consciousness before actually acting to stop degradation is appropriate for any conservation project undertaken in Lahore. From the inception of the current conservation plan, the impetus for preservation has come from outside the city walls and has been hindered by a discrepancy between what is said in meeting rooms and what happens in reality. In the absence of a fairly oppressive and well-funded preservation enforcement program, conservation in the walled city will not be effective without the support and active interest from the people who inhabit it. Endnotes1. John King, and John St. Vincent,  Lonely Planet Travel Survival Kit: Pakistan, 4th Edition (Lonely Planet Publications, 1993), p. 191. 2. PEPAC3. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd,  Lahore Development Authority: Conservation Plan for the Walled City of Lahore, Final Report, vol. 1, Plan Proposals (1986), p. 7. 4. Reza H. Ali, â€Å"Urban Conservation in Pakistan: a Case Study of the Walled City of Lahore,†Ã‚  Architectural and Urban Conservation in the Islamic World, Papers in Progress, vol. 1 (Geneva: Aga Khan Trust for Culture, 1990), p. 79. 5. Lahore Development Authority /Metropolitan Planning Wing, with the World Bank/IDA, â€Å"Lahore Urban Development and Traffic Study,† Final Report/vol. 4, Walled City Upgrading Study (August 1980), preface. . Ali, â€Å"Urban Conservation in Pakistan,† p. 87. 7. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd,  Issues and Policies: Conservation of the Walled City of Lahore,  (Metropolitan Planning Section Lahore Development Authority, 1996), point 5. 8. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consul tants Ltd, Lahore Development Authority,Conservation Plan for the Walled City of Lahore, Final Report, vol. 1, Plan Proposals. (1986), p. 180. 9. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd, Lecture given on the Walled City of Lahore Conservation Project (July 25, 1998). 0. (Sajjad Kausar)11. PEPAC lecture (25 July 1998). BibliographyAli, Reza H. â€Å"Urban Conservation in Pakistan: a case study of the Walled City of Lahore. †Ã‚  Architectural and Urban Conservation in the Islamic World. Papers in Progress. vol. 1. Geneva: Aga Khan Trust for Culture, 1990. Background Paper: Lahore Pakistan. Prepared for Design for Islamic Societies Studio, MIT Department of Architecture and Planning, 1992. King, John and St. Vincent, John. Lonely Planet Travel Survival Kit: Pakistan, 4th Edition. Lonely Planet Publications, 1993. Lahore Development Authority /Metropolitan Planning Wing, with the World Bank/IDA. â€Å"Lahore Urban Development and Traffic Study,† Final Report/vol. 4. Walled City Upgrading Study. August 1980. Nadiem, Ihsan H. Lahore: A Glorious Heritage. Lahore: Sang-e-meel Publications, 1996. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd. Lecture given on the Walled City of Lahore Conservation Project. July 25, 1998. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd. Monographs on the Walled City of Lahore. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd. Lahore Development Authority. Conservation Plan for the Walled City of Lahore. Final Report. vol. 1. Plan Proposals. 1986. Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants Ltd. Issues and Policies: Conservation of the Walled City of Lahore. Metropolitan Planning Section Lahore Development Authority. 1996. Qurashi, Samina. Lahore: The City Within. Singapore: Concept Media, 1988. CreditsAll photographs and illustrations courtesy the Aga Khan Fund, MIT Rotch Collections, unless otherwise noted below:1. Courtesy, KK Mumtaz. 2. Courtesy T. Luke Young. 4. Brian B. Taylor, MIMAR 24, 1987. . From Pakistan Environmental Planning and Architectural Consultants, Ltd, â€Å"Conservation Plan for the Walled City of Lahore. † 6. Courtesy T. Luke Young. 7a. Brian B. Taylor, MIMAR 24, 1987. 9. Courtesy Hasan Uddin Khan. |   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1. Map of the fortress of Lahore. 2. Traffic outside the walled city. 3. Encroachment. 4. A bazaa r in the Walled city 5. Inside View of the Wazir Khan Hamman, before and after restoration.. 6. streets in the old area. 7a and 7b. Electrical infrastructure. 8. Sharanwalla gate. 9. Electrical infrastructure. Image10. View of the walled city. | |

Business Improvement Districts from public finance perspective and its Research Paper

Business Improvement Districts from public finance perspective and its case study - Research Paper Example There is another type of district similar to Business Improvement District. It is called the Community Benefit District. It is pretty much like Business Improvement District only that property owners have to pay any additional taxes. Business owners do not vote to pay any additional taxes in Community Benefit Districts. In a gist, Business Improvement Districts are very lucrative. They offer services such as cleaning and cleansing of streets, provision of security, capital improvements, streetscape enhancement, pedestrian construction and marketing the area. All aforementioned services are offered to ensure that the district retains its attractiveness. These services are supplemental to those already offered by the municipality. The paper will be a rationale paper discussing Business Improvement Districts in the context of New York city. It will discuss various financing tools and the economic impact created by business districts. Why they are important? Why do they attract attention? Why kind of economic advantage do they bring with them? All these questions will be answered in the context of BIDs of New York. More-over there will be some more insight into un-even service delivery outside the district and eventually there will be a discussion on one district within NYC. That district will be thoroughly district in terms of ways in which it raises money and the services provided by that district. That district will be used as a case in New York City. The economist Magazine projected Business Improvement Districts as â€Å" the best hope for getting parts of America’s cash strapped cities working again† . These districts if properly identified and worked upon give that vicinity a new lease of life and face all together. Business Improvement Districts have attracted tremendous amount of interest. They have triggered a great deal of excitement amongst city governments and urban policy makers world over. They have started looking into Business

Implement education campaign to increase awareness of patients Dissertation

Implement education campaign to increase awareness of patients attending emergency - Dissertation Example Simple health cases, if untreated, can become emergency cases. The most cost-effective manner of reducing patient visits to the ED department is to prevent these injuries or illnesses from occurring. The hospital should involve itself in educating its local community on the benefits of healthy lifestyles and use of anti-tobacco campaigns. The hospital should also carry out educational campaigns on the appropriate occasions to attend the emergency department. The hospital should also increase access to alternative services for health care and educate its patients on the benefits of using these services. Additionally, the hospital should also enhance its specialist support service in order to divert some of the cases to doctors who can treat the patients quickly and efficiently, thus avoiding unnecessary return services to the ED. Finally, the hospital could enforce non-emergency, re-direction or refuse service to patients who do not meet the emergency criteria (Vincent, 2011, p. 12). These measures will help to reduce demand for ED services. In general, the reason for overcrowding of the ED department rises from inadequate financing of the emergency health department and services during a period when there is an increase in demand for these services. Therefore, the best way to deal with it is by reducing the demand (Skow-Pucel, 2006, p. 32). Limited human and financial resources are the issues that lead to inefficiency in the ED and, as such, increasing services would be almost impossible. Most patients coming into the ED of a hospital may not be in need of emergency services, although they almost all possess a need for health care. Reducing demand by using the measures discussed, such as diverting patients to alternative health services and enhancing specialist services, is the finest method of solving the issue of overcrowding (O'Leary, 2009, p. 41). However, some policies aimed at turning away patients deemed not to be in need of ED services either explicitly or implicitly without giving assurances of access to alternative care is neither clinically nor ethically acceptable. By reducing demand for services in the ED, the hospital should benefit by increasing their resources and productivity. By reducing abuse of the ED by the local community via decreasing demand for service, the deserving patients will be able to access quality and efficient service (Griffin, 2009, p. 27). The hospital emergency department staff will be better equipped to serve the real emergencies by making non-emergency services more attractive than emergency services. Removing non-value adding duties, improving the flow of patients through the department, and enhancing the efficiency of the ED staff should result in more productivity from the ED services currently in existence. Clinical audits, cascade staff duties, and minimal workload are also cost-effective since the hospital can redirect resources to other functions of the emergency department such as automation and computerization (Croskerry, 2009, p. 45). The benefits from reducing demand for emergency services have a trickle-down effect on other hospital services as well (Morrison & John, 2009, p. 78). Since these non-emergency patients can be referred to specialists and alternative health services, pre-hospital care is improved. The health of the local communi

THE EFFECT OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE ON THE ECONOMY OF SHANGHAI Essay

THE EFFECT OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE ON THE ECONOMY OF SHANGHAI - Essay Example There has been a positive influence On the GDP of Shanghai and the average growth rate is reported to be in double-digits. The per capita income has also been growing steadily and constantly. The city has developed at an amazing speed and special economic zones and commercial areas have been set up to attract more FDI (Foreign Direct Investment). There are some negative aspects of international trade as well such as environmental problems and greater reliance on international trade and investment. China, the most populous country in the world, has made rapid economic progress in the last couple of decades. The economic progress is largely due to economic reforms and open door policies introduced in 1978 which paved the way for the entry of foreign enterprises and international trade. On a broader perspective, international trade has had a tremendous effect on China. It has expanded the country’s growth and prompted China to target the whole world as a market for its products. Boyer (1998) noted that the rapid development came about due to various factors, including an expansive skilled labor, stability in the political system and a wide range of natural resources. In fact, because of the abundant supply of skilled and semi-skilled labor, China is often referred to as the â€Å"Workshop of the World† (Cui 2007). The reason that China has been selected for this case study is because its international economy has been introduced to the market so late yet, and still it has been able to surpass others who had an earlier presence in the market economy. Since China is a big and expansive country, which will be a challenge in carrying out the research and getting clear results, the paper narrows down its focusto Shanghai, which is the largest city in China. Shanghai has been chosen because it is considered the biggest centre for trade in China and it can well be

Ontology and the Morality of Abortion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Ontology and the Morality of Abortion - Essay Example It seems everyone has a view on this issue and all seem to want to have their say. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the human race has strong ties to its origins so in answering the question of if humans were once fetuses; many feel the answer to when life begins will also be uncovered. After researching the ontological issue of was a human being ever a fetus and the moral issue of what the arguments are for the various position on abortion: anti-abortion, moderate and strong, the question of the morality of abortion should become clear. Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality. It is through ontology that the primary focus on the debate of abortion becomes the answer of one simple question, was a human being ever a fetus? Two of the most famous philosophers to debate this issue are Erin T. Olson and Lynne Rudder Baker. Their primary debate focuses on whether we are a person, or whether we are essentially persons. Baker takes on the view th at we are all essentially persons. The term person, as he defines it, is as a being capable of rational and moral activity. In this he argues that we could never have been something that was not a person, such as a fetus. He then takes this idea step further in saying that since only persons are moral agents and as a result have rights, no abortion ever has nor ever will violate any rights since non-persons, in this case fetuses, do not have any. This debate, though it seems logical, can hold many horrendous implications. If, in society, we view only those who are capable of rational and moral activity, as persons and therefore the only ones to have rights, many others besides the fetus could be excluded. Take for instance a man in a comma. In the comma state the man does not have the ability of ration or moral activity; he is in a sense a vegetable, same as a fetus. So according to this theory if he was an inconvenience then the plug could be pulled and it would be okay to let him die because he is not essentially a person. A new born, according to this theory, could also be deemed incapable of rational and moral activity, so in essence it is yet to be essentially a person, so therefore has no rights and if one so choose could be done away with. Another example would be a mentally handicap person, in many severe cases, the mentally handicap are incapable of rational and moral activity, therefore are they not considered essentially persons with rights. It seems that saying that only those with rational and moral activity are essentially persons and therefore have rights is a dangerous road to travel. Olson, however, takes on the view that we are not all essentially persons, but that each of us is essentially a member of the species, Homo sapiens, in short, an animal, a biological kind. He says that the properties of personhood are acquired by humans at some stage in their biological career, just like we acquire other properties like being a student, a mother, so on. So with this view all humans were once a fetus. If all human kind therefore was once a fetus, in the debate of abortion it would be wrong to kill or abort a human, despite what state it is in. This argument makes more logical sense as

Global Management and Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Global Management and Leadership - Essay Example There are various functional departments such as finance, operations, Human Resources, Wholesale, Direct Sales, Information Technology, Marketing, Merchandise, Property, Sales, Supply Chain and Design. The heads of all these departments report to the CEO. The CEO along with other directors forms the board of directors which takes crucial organizational decisions. Such an organizational structure suits a company like Pumpkin Patch whose lines of business are quite few. This organizational structure enables appropriate designation of responsibilities (Organizational Chart Pumpkin patch, 2010). Pumpkin patch has been following an aggressive growth strategy which is not constrained by geographical boundaries. The company has retail stores in 4 countries as well as wholesale association in 16 countries. 80% of company’s revenues come from outside New Zealand. The company is listed on the New Zealand stock exchange and has more than 200 stores worldwide. It has strong financial stat ements and cash flows. A large part of the company’s sales comes through online sales. This indicates its adaptability to modern technologies, tastes and lifestyles. 2. Weaknesses As Pumpkin Patch grows, relying on a simple organizational structure as present could be risky. There would be a need to include structural components based on geography and lines of business. For example, there could be geographical heads for 4 prime geographical regions the company caters to (Organizational Chart Pumpkin patch, 2010). Pumpkin Patch’s turnover is still a fraction of the top retailers in United States and has a long way to go in spite of its recent scalability. 3. Opportunities Pumpkin Patch has a number of opportunities in all 3 channels of sales it uses i.e. Retail, Wholesale and Direct (Internet). In retail segment, the company has been relying solely on margins rather than volumes. Pumpkin Patch needs to scale up even faster to gain a significant market share in the crowd ed U.S. market. For this, the company can make use of franchise model. In the wholesale segment, the company needs to have strategic collaborations with top multi-brand retail chains such as Spencer’s and Wal-mart. Internet market is the best opportunity Pumpkin Patch can make use of. This is a relatively new sales channel and Pumpkin already has a significant presence there. It has not been exploited to its potential by competitors. This should be treated as a priority. The aim should be to generate at least half of the sales from this channel in coming years (Pumpkin patch Limited, 2007). 4. Threats Pumpkin has a significant mind space among the customers. However, U.S. children’s clothing market is highly crowded. There are well known reputed brands such as Gap, Next, Mango, Zara, Billabong, Gymboore and others (Pumpkin patch Limited, 2007). Scaling up in wake of this intense competition would be a difficult task and involve marketing and infrastructure spends. With huge store opening costs, the company may not be able to realize economies of scale with small stores. References Organizational Chart Pumpkin patch. (2010). Retrieved online January 18, 2012 from Pumpkin patch Limited. (2007). Macquarie Securities Data Related Information from PART 2 Relevance of Core Competencies Core competency is the unique capability of a firm that cannot be easily imitated and provides it a unique competitive edge. Core competencies

Math Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Math - Essay Example Therefore, conjecture, the graphs of the sine function and its derivative cosine function are sinusoids of different phases i.e. the derivative is also a sine function with a phase-shift of (or) is true. For making graph of above sine function and its derivative functions, there will be need of taking value of constant ‘a’. In general, the ‘a’ is called as amplitude of the function. Figure 3 shows the different graphs of sine function and its derivative function for different values of ‘a’ (i.e. 2, 3, and 5). From above figure 3, it is obvious that the graphs of the sine and it derivative cosine functions (for different values of ‘a’) are sinusoids of different phases. The derivative is also a sine function with a phase-shift of (or). Here, the constant ‘a’ (amplitude) different values only change the shape of the sine and cosine functions. As the value of ‘a’ (either positive or negative) increases the shape of the curve will also changes and it goes far from x-axis. The above conjecture for can be verified by graphing similarly as verified for earlier, as shown in figure 2. For same values of constant ‘a’, all the graphs of function, and will be similar and will follows the same path. Therefore, it can be said that all the functions represent the same function, which is derivative of function. From table 2 it is obvious that all values for derivative functions are same (3rd, 4th and 5th column). Therefore, conjecture, the graphs of the sine function and its derivative cosine function are sinusoids of different phases i.e. the derivative is also a sine function with a phase-shift of (or) is true. From figure 1 and figure 4, it can be seen that as the value of b increases, the number of cycle for and for, also increases. For b = 1 the number of cycle is 2, and for b = 2, 3, and 5 the number of cycle is 4, 6 and 10 respectively. In addition, for derivative functions the amplitude

Real Estate Management Sop Essay Example for Free

Real Estate Management Sop Essay Every man has a dream to be something and excel on it. Privileged are those who are educated and can contribute towards the betterment of society, community, country and the world at large. Three basic necessities of life – Food, Clothing and Shelter. A large number of people cannot easily afford for food and clothes and affordable hygienic shelter is beyond their vision. In urban world less than half of the population are around 23-30 age group who have money to fulfill their basic needs of food and clothes but not homes because of high cost even if there are good EMI Schemes with low interest rate offered by government to citizen for their first home. An individual upliftment in the society is linked to the fulfillment of dreams of common man. My dream is to fulfill their vision and I firmly believe on it. A vision to develop a business model provide affordable hygienic homes to masses along with maximum appreciation in their investment. Understanding of real estate and technology in construction and cost reduction is what required to be focused on. As research, the world population is increasing @ 2% approximately in compounding effect. There is always excess of demand than supply. Financial sound people look for better amenities with high premium and unfortunate home seeker look for basic amenities; and understanding of both is very crucial where cost can be saved by mass development and allocation of fund from one to another to encourage more affordable mass development of affordable house on principle of economy of large scale. Dream, Believe and Act with Passion.

Effectiveness Of Bottom Up And Top Down Environmental Sciences Essay

Effectiveness Of Bottom Up And Top Down Environmental Sciences Essay Urban poor communities are becoming increasingly vulnerable to the effects of climate. This is due to many reasons, such as densely populated cities and poor housing structure. There are many ways to reduce the vulnerabilities of the urban poor to climate change. One of the key ways to deal with the impacts of climate change and thus increase resilience to climate change, is to adapt to these changes. This essay will focus on adaptation rather than mitigation, to enable a more detailed analysis of top-down verses bottom-up approaches. This is not to say that mitigation is not important or that adaptation should replace mitigation strategies. Rather that adaption is solely explored to better analyse which approach is best. This can be achieved either through bottom-up approaches or top-down strategies. Top-down usually refers to management at the city and national level such as municipal authorities. Bottom-up approaches are self-protection efforts made by households and communities t hemselves, based on local knowledge (OBrien et al 2006). However, there is no clear definition and often it can be uncertain where top-down starts and bottom-up begins. The aim of the essay is to evaluate whether a top-down or bottom-up approach is more effective to deal with the impacts of climate change on urban poor communities. In order to achieve this aim, the essay will be split into three main parts: part one will outline arguments that a top-down approach is most effective for dealing with the impacts of climate change, looking at approaches from within disaster risk reduction. However the second part will challenge this and explore debates that a bottom-up approach is more successful, through asset-based adaptation. On the other hand, the third part will argue that there is a need for a more participatory approach that incorporates local communities within top-down strategies, referred to as collaborative planning (Healy . The analysis will be supported by examples from current and past practices in the Global South. The conclusions reached areà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Part one: top-down The adverse effects of climate change are already evidentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and developing countries are [the] most vulnerable. (World Bank 2003) Urban settlements in the developing world are beginning to face increasingly severe weather events as a result of climate change. Urban poor communities will be increasingly forced to cope with higher incidents of flooding, air and water pollution, and heat stress. Cities in developing countries are particularly at risk due to their high density populations, expansive informal settlements, poor land management and lack of infrastructure, such as adequate drainage channels (Tanner et al 2008). Thus, urban poor communities are one of the most vulnerable to the changes in climate. Bohle et al (1995) argues that to reduce vulnerability there needs be a reduction in the exposure of potentially harmful effects of climate change, an increased ability to cope with disasters and the process of recovery needs to be strengthened (Wilbanks and Kates 1999). One of the key ways of achieving all three of these aspects to reduce vulnerability is to adapt to the changes in climate and reduce the risk of disaster. This can be done through top-down approaches at the city or national level. In general, efforts to improve the ability of whole populations to recover from disasters are usually tackled through public policy intervention at the national scale. Thus, top-down approaches are needed to direct and implement adaptation strategies to increase resilience (Adger et al 2005b). The concept of resilience refers to the ability to persist and adapt in the face of climate shocks and stresses (Tanner et al 2008). This can be achieved through disaster risk reduction (DRR) which increases the resilience of local communities through reducing the vulnerability of people and property, better land management practices and improvement in preparedness. DRR includes hazard reduction, such as improving drainage, and preparedness for response and recovery s uch as insurance schemes. DRR involves building response capacity and managing climate risk (Sutanta et al 2008). National governments take the lead in identifying the dangers to communities and in developing strategies to cope with, and adapt to, changing circumstances. One of the ways to deal with the impacts of climate change is through disaster risk management (DRM). DRM refers to both disaster risk reduction (prevention, preparedness and mitigation) and humanitarian and development action (emergency response, relief and reconstruction). For example Tanner et al (2008) states that in Bikol region in the Philippines, there was access to safe land which reduces the disaster risk and increases the resilience of poor communities to climate change. This can only be achieved through top-down processes as city and municipal governments in developing countries are usually primarily responsible for infrastructure and service provision that is essential for the reduction of vulnerability to many environmental hazards (Tanner et al 2008). For example, Dodman and Satterthwaite (2008) point out that acti ons in Durban, one of South Africas largest cities, illustrate how top-down initiatives can increase the resilience of the urban poor in cities. The municipality has incorporated climate change into long-term city planning, addressing the vulnerability of key sectors in coastal infrastructure and disaster management (DRR). Furthermore, early warning systems are essential to reduce the impact of disasters and these are developed from the top-down, increasing the resilience of the urban poor to climate change related disasters. For example the Ningbo government in China, have established early warning systems using high-tech instruments. Tanner et al (2008) states that in 2005, when typhoon Kanu hit Ningbo, the government was able to reduce damage to the city by taking action earlier and evacuating thousands of people avoiding thousands of casualties (Tanner et al 2008). The vulnerability of the urban poor also depends on many factors that influence the amount of damage that a particular hazard can cause. There are different types of vulnerability, such as socio-economic fragility, which affect how resilient urban communities are to climate change (Cardona et al 2004). Assets held by individuals and households are influenced by external factors, such as government policies. Therefore, the efficiency of land administration and management can help build the adaptation capacity of poor people in urban areas. If land policies and management are simple and compatible with the urban poor, so the urban poor can access affordable land, then this will be one of the most effective ways to deal with the impacts of climate change (Moser et al 2010). Stern (2007) argues that to develop resilient cities there needs to be an improvement in urban planning and provision of public services and infrastructure, which can only be achieved from the top-down (OBrien et al 2006). For example, in Indonesia, DRR has been integrated into spatial planning which has resulted in a reduction of vulnerability to natural hazards (Mitchell 2003). Moser et al (2010) also identifies politico-legal vulnerability, such as a lack of tenure rights. A lack of tenure rights means that communities face a lack of services and infrastructure, increasing their vulnerability to disasters. This relates to climate change-related issues as it means inhabitants have weak incentives to increase the resilience of the housing structures and as mentioned above, often live in the most hazardous sites. This can only be solved from a top-down perspective as programmes to secure tenure are not possible without government support. Thus, sustained political support is needed, as well as adequate urban planning methods and a substantial commitment of financial and human resources, which all come from the top-down. Moser et al (2010:56) argues that from a policy perspective clarifying tenure rights and developing coherent urban land policy frameworks is of the utmost importance for building resilience of the urban poor to negative climate change impacts. This also provides long term solutions to the impacts of climate change (Dodmam et al 2010). Linked to this, urban poor communities are vulnerable in that many live in extreme poverty. There are important linkages between urban poverty and vulnerability to disasters and climate change (Dodman and Satterthwaite 2008). Carraro et al (2007) argues for the importance of considering climate concerns in the development context. Thus, one of the most effective ways to deal with the impacts of climate change is to include adaptation and DRR within development goals, which can only be done from the top-down. Poverty eradication will increase the resilience of local communities to extreme climatic changes, while also addressing the underlying factors which may lead and/or have led to a disaster (Sutanta et al 2008). In Latin America, it has been common for some time to define disasters as failed development (OBrien et al 2006:70). As Schipper and Pelling (2006:29) argue, measures to mitigate the risk of disaster need to focus on reducing vulnerability within the context of development , thus the most effective way of addressing the risks posed by climate change and disasters is to lessen the underlying factors causing vulnerability to these phenomena. DRR is often given a low priority by national and international organisations and so for top-down strategies to be effective then measures to address climate change should be integrated with national development programmes (Wamsler 2009). Consequently, poverty reduction as well as adaptation from the top-down would be the one of the most effective ways to deal with the impacts of climate change (Stern et al 2007, Tearfund 2008). However, the second part of the essay will go on to explore arguments that bottom-up approaches are needed. Part two: Bottom-up On the other hand, top-down responses are often only seen through the lens of disaster. DRR only responds to disasters and does not take other climate change related issues into account. This presents a very partial picture of predominant patterns of weather changes and the sources of resilience of local communities. This is a key flaw Moser et al (2010) identified that urban populations in Kenya and Nicaragua were increasingly experiencing smaller, micro-level severe weather problems. These problems are not considered disasters by the major national institutions. Therefore, the adaptation needs of such communities are often ignored by national and international policy communities as the impacts are slow and incremental, but still have serious negative impacts for the majority of the worlds urban poor (Moser et al 2010). Dodman et al (2010) argue that DRR, driven from the top-down, alone is not effective to respond to climate change as it does not take into account the longer climati c changes. Thus community-based adaptation is an effective way to reduce the vulnerability of low-income groups. Bottom-up approaches are often seen as the most effective way to deal with the impacts of climate change because adaptation also responds to the slower changes in weather patterns. Bottom-up approaches to increase the resilience of poor communities by reducing the risk of disaster and adapting to changes in climate at the community, household and individual level. Dodman et al (2010) describes how Federations in the Philippines have been successful in working towards community-led saving schemes to improve housing, and thus reduce the vulnerability to disasters. Improving communities capacity to deal with climate change through DRR will also improve their ability to cope with future hazards (Tearfund 2008). Furthermore, creating policies to help reduce the risk of disasters will also improve opportunities more generally (Wisner et al 2004). Another way to increase resilience is to adapt assets such as housing to be more resilient to future weather events. One theoretical approach to respond to climate change is the asset adaptation framework. The framework focuses on asset vulnerability to climate change and identifies climate change adaptation from the bottom-up. These adaptations also work towards the slower changes in climate that affect the urban poor. Moser et al (2010) uses this framework to show how communities in Mombasa, Kenya and Estelà ­, Nicaragua are vulnerable to climate change in terms of individual assets such as human and social capital, and also in terms of household, small business and community assets such as financial and productive assets. Many poor communities in the Global South live in poorly constructed housing that is often self-built and unplanned, and thus provides little resilience to extreme weather events. Moreover, Yahya et al (2001) argue that in many developing countries, meeting gove rnment standards is impossible for many urban poor communities, forcing them to remain in self-built structures. This means urban poor communities often live in areas most at risk to natural hazards, such as flooding, because this is where either the land is cheapest or they live illegally. Thus, adapting assets to climate change at the community level is effective for dealing with the impacts of climate change. As part of the asset-adaptation framework identified by Moser et al (2010), adapting assets is one of the keys ways to reduce the vulnerability of the poor from the bottom-up, as individual assets, such as housing, were considered the most important aspects to building resilience. The key to the development of an asset-based adaptation framework therefore is the identification and analysis of the connection between vulnerability and the erosion of assets (Moser et al 2010:8) Assets therefore have a role in increasing the adaptive capacity of the urban poor. The asset adaptation framework identifies strategies to adapt assets to climate change. These strategies aim to build resilience, protect assets during extreme weather and rebuild them after such events. Moser et al (2010) found a variety of responses to the increasing severity of local weather patterns. For example in the city of Mombasa, inhabitants dug water passages in case of flooding, while small business owners constructed concrete walls to protect against flooding. As extreme weather events increase in frequency and intensity then solidly constructed housing becoming increasingly important. In Mombasa, most of the bottom-up responses to weather events revolved around adapting housing to reduce damage that would be caused by future weather events. They also protect assets during extreme weather events, such as in Mombasa they place sandbags in the doorways of houses during floods to limit the amount of damage. Communities also rebuild after such events, to ensure assets are resilient to future disasters. For example inhabitants in Esteli, replanted trees and plants, to reduce flood damage, while those living in Mombasa accessed weather forecasters which informed people of the occurrence of severe weather. These strategies have proved successful in dealing with the impacts of clim ate change, as they reduce damage to assets and thus reduce the vulnerability of the urban poor to future extreme weather events. Dodman et al (2010) also stated that asset adaptation at the community level were effective. They used examples from the Philippines, where community-based action is used in post disaster reconstruction of temporary and permanent housing and relocation. These strategies are effective when dealing with many aspects of climate change. Adger et al (2005a) argue that the most effect level of governance is bottom-up approaches. Rayner (2010) also argues that bottom-up strategies are best through improved adaptation to climate change. He argues that climate change policies should be designed and implemented at the lowest level. He also argues that approaches should focus on adaptation, which has the potential to bring real benefits to local communities. Adaptation is local in character and therefore a bottom-up approach. Part three: both On the contrary, Rayner (2010) also recognises that climate change is a multilevel governance problem. Therefore some aspects may need to be governed from the top down. However, it can be difficult to define which a top-down is and bottom-up approach and sometimes they overlap. Therefore, for policies to be most effective a combination of both should avoid confusion. As Tanner et al (2008) point out municipal governments in developing countries often do not have adequate provisions in order to deal with increased climate hazards such as flood management. The financial capacity of these governments is weak and often the division of tasks between different levels of government remains unclear, leading to inefficiencies. Therefore, adaptation at the community level is effective, but it still needs the support from local governments. The success of a strategy depends not on the scale but on how that action meets the objectives of adaptation, and how it affects the ability of others to meet their adaptation goals. Thus, the most effective way to adapt to the changes in climate would be a collaboration of both approaches. Developing countries should draw upon what Healey (1997) refers to as collaborative planning, which is the theory that local communities should be more involved and enlightened in decision making. The urban poor are often excluded fro m deliberations because of the informal nature of their communities and tenure arrangements, which generally lead to a level of invisibility and lack of voice in relation to all formal planning processes (Moser et al 2008). Nawrotzki and Oluwagbuyi (2008) recommend that combining top-down and bottom-up approaches will increase the effectiveness of policies. Therefore, the best method to reduce the impacts of climate change should be led from the top-down, to address issues such as poverty and politico-legal vulnerability, but should also include the interests of local communities. Involvement of poor and marginalised groups in decision-making will ensure a city can improve the conditions for those living in informal settlements or living in exposed locations (Dessai et al 2001). This has been achieved in Kerala, India, where political consciousness and awareness of rights and responsibilities is high at every level, resulting in a high turnout at elections. Kerala also has neighbour hood groups to represent the poor, which consist of 20-40 people who meet once a week to discuss problems in their communities and seek solutions (Tanner et al 2008). Schemes that work in isolation can often have negative impacts in the long term, and do not take into account wider effects and process. Dodmam et al (2010) points out that isolated activities in separate communities will be unable to meet broader goals without the support of local officials, and be unable to meet the adaptation needs of a large number of people (Hounsome and Iyer 2006). Combining governmental programs, NGO intervention and adaptation measures by local people to the problem of climate change will decrease the vulnerability of the urban poor (Nawrotzki and Oluwagbuyi 2008). A supportive legal system and local government is also important for supporting locally developed responses to achieve effective climate change adaptation (Dodman and Satterthwaite 2008, Satterthwaite et al. 2007). This will also help to strengthen antagonistic relationships between the urban poor and governments, as often adaptation activities may become perceived as a threat by informal settlers, and an excuse to evict them (Wilbanks and Kates 1999). In Mombasa, there is a lack of trust of governments outside agencies must gain the trust of local communities (Moser 2010, Bicknell et al 2009). Moser et al (2010) argues that if local communities are not involved then government policies will not be full informed as to what is best for the urban poor and may make their situation worse. Moreover, because changes in climate and an increase in extreme weather events will mostly negatively affect the urban poor, their participation in decision making is crucial for building resilience (Tanner et al 2008). Nour (2011) states that in Egypt, there has been a shift to incorporate local communities in urban upgrading and development interventions, for instance, there has been a community-based maintenance of local drains. There has been a joint responsibility of government agencies, the community and the private sector for garbage collection and the improvement of the environment. Nour (2011) argues that without community participation, attempts to achieve sustainable results are bound to fail. This therefore improves from top-down perspectives which are externally imposed and expert oriented. Roy and Ganguly (2009) state that participatory planning has been a success in West Bengal since the 1970s and this form of planning result in local people feeling ownership of these plans. Furthermore, the Stern Report (Stern 2007) argues that effective adaptation at the community-level, would include deliberation about actions being decided by communities rather than being imposed from above. There fore climate change adaptation should be in the form of multi-level governance (Bulkeley 2010). Community based strategies are often in isolation from one another and there is no overarching authority controlling them. Conclusion the conclusions reached are that top-down strategies are ultimately necessary, but that these must incorporate local communities priorities The conclusions reached are that a top-down approach that engages with local authorities and communities is the most effective. Top-down approaches need to also include support for local responses such as community-based adaptation. Local communities should be involved in higher decision making. Thus the most appropriate adaptation responses will often be multi-level responses. In effect, the diversity of climate change means that the most appropriate adaptation responses will often be multi-level responses. (Adger 2005: 924) in the future there needs to be connected between responses at all levels. DRR should involve a large array of stakeholders, including local communities, NGOs, local and national governments, scientists, school communities, faith groups, private sector institutions, etc. Schipper and Pelling (2006). Disaster risk reduction is largely a task for local actors, albeit with support from national and international organisations, particularly in humanitarian action. efforts in Sri Lanka in response to the 2004 tsunami indicate that policymakers are not viewing the reconstruction phase as an opportunity to take into account the potential adverse effects of future climate change-induced sea-level rise in their plans, Reducing vulnerability is a key aspect of reducing climate change risk. . In reality, national governments will take the lead

Reward of motivating good employees

Reward of motivating good employees Executive Summary The report highlight good reward Motivating employees at the workplace has become a challenge for employers today. Profit sharing, Scanlon plan, Annual Bonus, Gain sharing and Merit plane these are employee incentive plan. With this in view, recommendations are made towards developing and implementing reward polices for employees in the different departments of the firm or company, Performance of management is also discussed as a way to enhance productivity. Incentive is good as well wrong decision for employees. In this summary I have define that incentive is most important for employees but on merit base. If any staff member working honestly and just for that company than company have a right to pay him incentive in the shape of bonuses. The total report is on manager and personal ideas about employees motivation. Does it is favourable or against off workers. If against why or if is it favourable than give related example, below of this report I have explain about each plan as well example of motivation. The challenge for management is to perform action new policies by means of endorsement and requirement plan provided at the end of this report. Introduction In this summary I have explain about motivation how employer motivate to workers and get extra work. In short term motivation mean any type of financial reward pay to employees, staff or worker whose production go beyond limits some arrange in advance level of quality. In motivation many factors have been identifying to influence employee attempt at their place of work and group. As well there are best size in consider method and series of action of motivation in organisations. These are the following factors that I am watching to examine. I believe to learn what motivation is about in complete self interest needs one to be motivated inevitably. Motivation in organisations is crucial for employees or workers. Many factors have been identifying to affect employee effort at their place of the work and organisations also there has been a great size in recognized acting technique and processes of motivation in firm. This type of areas which I shall be looking to examine. I believe learni ng what motivation is about in its self interest one to be incentive inevitably motivation in firm is vital for employees. Number of plan has been recognised to effect workers efforts at their place of work and organisation. I could also easily say this is better identifying method and process of incentive in organization. There are following plans which I shall look to analysis. I believe to learn about motivation thus give incentive to employees is better option for organization. As well analyse about inevitably motivation in organization play a vital role for employee. Motivation Theory There are too many theories which have been create to struggle to explain the concept of motivation these theory help to understand employees response in certain situation at work one or other to improve their regular payment reduce their effort. These types of theory help to understand which way motivate to workers in difference organization as well how best way used the movement of incentive to different types of individual. These theories see into workers or peoples, wants, needs and desire and what amount of needs have to achieve the give task or goal. Example: According to the research of CIPD most of the firms which are underdeveloped to communicate with their staff have seen motivation decrease during the time of recession. Example: According to the ‘Farren he speak about 12 human needs which is as follow education, shelter, family, wealth, work, community, mobility, safety, socialising, spiritually thats all human need I believe that all human needs reach or faced by reward, we can get it easily if these factor put in at our place of work and company. Personal ideas on motivation My ideas about motivation is to increase the ability of individual, increase level of skill, as well better way of time knowledge that how to complete task work alongside incentive. I can also tell that personally the ultimate reward is special advantages of motivation in term of money; as well employee has the knowledge about particular task which he has done on time. Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP) Employee stock ownership plans is totally companywide plans, in this plan company offer opinion share of its own stock. In this plan cash going to be used for bought such stock as a trust successful to buy shares of the firms stock for workers. In this situation company makes that contribution annually in part of whole to total workers compensation. ESOP plans are mostly used to provide market share of the set off owners successfully and very nearly held in t he companies, to motivate and reward of the workers. In short ESOP is not an employees purchase it is contribute of employees. Some of the companys makes formal preparation for the workers participation is is called employee stock ownership planed. In employees ownership employee can purchase any kind of stock directly, which is given it in bonus shape, or he can get a stock option as well be established through a profit sharing plan. Some of the employees they become an owner of the firm because of workers corporate in this situation everyone have an equal right. Example: The ESOP ASSOCIATION CANADA (Employee Share Ownership Plan) is a non-profit set up institution in November 1990 for the purpose of advance the concept of employee ownership for business in Canada. Employee ownership is an important advice for doing work for economic growth and reorganization business drawing new projects. ( ESOP Association Canada). Example: In 1974, almost 11000 companies have these types of plans with the help of this help they cover up to 13 million employees. According to my ideas these types of plans couldnt used in partnership an especially in most professional local governing authority. ESOP plans only used in S corporation. In this situation private companies they must be repurchase share of change workers. I am as well favourable of ESOP plans can increase their local authority performance if workers can participate in decision which is effecting on work. Profit Sharing Plan It is better way to give incentive company workers profit sharing is most beneficial for both company as well for employees. In this situation both company and staff play a role as win. Profit sharing such commonly used for share profit programme that used for the company productivity as well stock reward to workers. In profit sharing plan all or most workers receive share of the firms annual profit is most popular today. We could easily said in this plan profit are divided between company and workers. Each worker gets percentage of that profit which is based on company earning or company revenue. In profit sharing manager play a very vital role for employees. Because they paid money to employees just for check or related to the output. Management provide or motivate management benefit received attempt. In this situation incentive are paying to employees just related of output and to the scope to which he shares in the rise value of stock that he produces. Example: Ford motor company introduce a profit sharing plan for salaried workers. And General Motors increased its profit sharing payout when profit was improved or increase. Its mean each company pay profit sharing reward to his workers when they get extra profit. This incentive in the shape of company shares. (Dessler, 2005) According to my ideas these type of programme are planned to benefit of employees for the firm increasing its earning or income. In profit sharing or these type planned designed because of bonuses paying to employees, in this situation check before pay hence the performance of company is better in the given time period, month, annual and compared to the current or present year. Profit sharing programme immediate provides to workers and reward paying benefit as well. Example: According to the ‘Dar El profit sharing is an effective incentive, which have added benefit of being a need that is usually never meet condition. With some relating to the law reward system serves to give something support the motivational process which is employee working smarter. (Dar El, 1991) Example: One of the biggest basic structures of the appreciation is to treat workers as they are employers of the company. Thats act of future responsibility to the specific person.(Bob Nelson, 1997) Annual Bonus Plan Annual bonuses mean bonus which is paid end of the year. Such bonus are paid to worker behalf of his work performance or time which is up to one year. In this situation employees only allowed to take 9 days leave in each year. Many firms have annual bonus plans aim to motivating the very short term performance of managers and senior managers mean executive level. Example: According to the BBC news they advertise recently network rail chief executive is to give up his annual bonus for this year saying he does not want it to could discussion of the firms performance. (BBC, 14 May 2009) Example: Displeasure is supporting device over a new bonus scheme at Tesco that will reward chief executive Sir Terry Leahy with a  £11.5m windfall if the supermarket groups US venture Fresh Easy succeeds.(the independent business). Example: My ideas but other members of the Network Rail executive committee are still being considered for payments which could total hundreds of thousands of pounds. Example: The news that holiday bonuses are not so traditional anymore comes in a global survey by HR services firm ‘Hewitt Associates. Example: Up to 207,000 staff at Tesco is shovel share bonuses worth a total of  £98m after the retailers record annual results, it was exposing today. Tesco managers said all staff from checkout employees to store managers which have worked with the supermarket for at least a year by the end of February is valid for the free shares contributes 3.6 per cent of salary, up to a maximum of  £3,000. Gain sharing plan The best system of high level management in which organization search high level of performance through the concern and participation of his workers or employees. As improve in performance and in the profit employees share financially. Gain sharing plans is an motivation plan which engage all workers or staff in a very common struggle to get a organization productivity based on bias. ( Garry Dessler, 2005) In this reward we could said company achieve maintenance in addition key measure performance. That type of reward are payee for increase in performance improvement. Gain sharing reward is increase the feelings of employers as well accountability. Gain sharing motivation feeling of superiority, as well most positive attitude or work towards company. Example: According to my idea gain sharing reward are paid to the performance of team performance not for the performance of individuals. Raise the level of company problems from everyone has a more financial stake for the company success. In gain sharing management require a participative management style which is most stress for each organization. Pay for performance Pay for performance is the best sources of help to date on the issues of whether these concepts work how they can be practical most effectively in the workplace. This important volume looks at pay practice. Performance pay refers to the process of analyse workers amend this is based on bonuses and wages, salary in this situation manager can determine that how much better number of employees performance on work. In simply performance pay make sense to incentive more production of employees for their rise in contribution to the company. EXAMPLE: The best example of performance pay is NHS, AGENDA for CHANGE has successful make something easier pay system of parts for the NHS with the intention of enabling greater able to adapt to new situation and addressing incessant equal pay to failure match. (NHS Executive, 1999) EXAMPLE: According to the civil services, existing performance related (PRP) secret plot have been reviewed and performance as well Makinson report (2000) has suggest a shift to team bonuses which will also be part of chain into target ability. Example: In Education health teacher were integrate on to new scale form performance small in quantity in (1999) and pay review body endorsement that classroom teacher should be included in this scheme (93 percent) were successful in achieving awards. Which in perfect form were pay award linked to performance and talent. Example: According to the Cabinet continuities from the previous period of market based reform are notable with responsibility to long pay with performance maintain and indeed, intensified. (Cabinet Office, 1999) Example: At the very first comprehensive spending review progressed through 1999, the chancellor announced higher than expected general settlement for health and for education, but press sure on pay was maintain now money was tied definite to funding capital projects, such as improve in information technology. Such as hospital waiting lists. Example: Market manipulation by the Prime Minister made it clear that Government did not expect to see pay levels increasing at the same rate as general money spent unless they were linked to result. (Peston and Timmins 1999). FINANCIAL REWARD The organization needs to be recognized requirement and maintain paying policies, method and practices that are reliable with and support effective risk management. There have to be link between response and reward and the incentive system needs to reflect this. I could easily explain financial reward with the help of my ideas this against or favourable of employee as well for organization. There are number of incentive system that a firm could use to motivate its employee. Wages and salary Portion or services rate Benefit of faction Merit pay Share owner WAGES AND SALRY Wages and salary is simply paying for staff performance. Mean work of employee and given reward such as a wages and salary. We could easily said simply used for business. Staff may modern existence paid the same as a fellow workers who they seem to yourself is not so productive. PORTION OR SERVICE PAY Portion or services pay such pay paying to worker on each item which they produce in set period of time. That type of payment paying to staff for the behalf of work which they did in couple of time. We could easily said with the help of services pay increase speed of work so thats why increase in productivity. Example: According to my ideas or opinion if services paying to worker they do not cluster together on quality of work as important on speed of work. As well for portion pay worker or staff they ignore the rule of company such as, health and safety. Because they trying to increase output just for portion payment. BENEFIT OF FACTION These type of financial reward mostly paid to workers such as extra their normal wages or salary. Benefit of faction paying to staff for extra ordinary work. These type of reward mostly pay to all level of managers. Such as car, free food, house, private health insurance, medical treatments etc. Example: According to my ideas these type of benefits going against and favour of company. Such help to worker and provide human and social needs. Encourage employee because he can stay or work more and better for company. And i am against because of common use to a majority of employees will increase cost able to cut or pointed. SHARE OWNERSHIP PLAN This is also financial reward for employee these type of incentive paying to senior or middle level managers who are given able to give share in company, on contrary than accurate membership of a profit sharing scheme. Example: According to my point of view if share are paying to worker they will work harder as they have share in company if company is running on profit this is also beneficial for workers. In this case worker they dont like to leave the company. As well I am against of share ownership because of this other staff in panic mean these type of benefit just paying to senior Non Financial Reward Non financial reward mean range in which money is motivator to increase performance corpse piece of an unresolved argument. Information technology held that all staff likely to over reported significance of pay in any employee critical inspection. Non financial reward inspection sign display the failure to match between people point of view what they have to be said and did with respect to pay and concluded that although pay is not same important in all individuals, we could easily said such an important general motivator that many mangers make too below estimate its importance. (Tim claydon, 2007) There are following non financial reward which is below of this line. Four weeks or monthly annual leaves Flexible benefits cash sum Flexible working as meets the needs of the business. Share save schemes Contributory pension scheme Discounted/preferential rates on a whole range of products from loans to mortgages Abraham Maslow Non Cash Incentive RECOMENDATION AND IDEAS In each point of my topic I have already give my ideas. In both condition I have represent why incentive is important and why not for organization. I have some more words to say that all combination of my whole topic which I am going to give my ideas this incentive is necessary for employee if yes so I have to explain about this. According to my point of view employee must believe producing performance I could easily said this is certain specified behaviour which have to lead known reward. The employees of the organization they must have believed that reward offered are interesting. Some employees they want edging benefit, such as pension, house rent allowances as well medical allowances because they are old workers and they want retirement security. But some employees they desire promotions because they are looking for power. Employees they must trust a set of level in individual efforts which will lead to achieve the local governing authority standard of performance. CONCLUSION The total rewards strategy for the organization will speak distinctly the overall plan for the rewards that will be offered to the employees in swap for excellent work and responsibility from them. That type of strategy is full set of rewards, both financial and non-financial, and will also develop plan which focus on performance of management. This doesnt mean that incentive at work places does not better actually according to my personal experience I proffered that it is crucial to get the best out of employees. Managers just have to find the best suitable processes to apply to the exceptional organization. REFERNCE AND BIBLOGRAPHY Julie Beardwell Tim Claydon (2007). Human Resource Management. 5th ed. london: FT Prentice Hall. 499. Dar-El, E. (1991, November 22). The productivity option. Nelson, B. (1997). 1001 ways to reward employees. Gary dessler (2005). Human resources managment. 10th ed. London: Pearson. 453. Dressler (2005). Human resources management. 10th edition. London: Pearson. Page no 455. Newspaper sources http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8049226.stm Internet sources http://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/tesco-investors-attack-executive-bonus-plan-455331.html?cmp=ilc-n http://www.esop-canada.com/

How Aids Has Affected Our Society :: essays research papers fc

Today more Americans are infected with STD's than at any other time in history. The most serious of these diseases is AIDS. Since the first cases were identified in the United States in 1981, AIDS has touched the lives of millions of American families. This deadly disease is unlike any other in modern history. Changes in social behavior can be directly linked to AIDS. Its overall effect on society has been dramatic. It is unknown whether AIDS and HIV existed and killed in the U.S. and North America before the early 1970s. However in the early 1980s, "deaths by opportunistic infections, previously observed mainly in tissue-transplant recipients receiving immunosuppressive therapy", were recognized in otherwise healthy homosexual men. In 1983 French oncologist Luc Montagnier and scientists at the Pasteur Institute in Paris isolated what appeared to be a new human retrovirus from the lymph node of a man at risk for having AIDS. At the same time, scientists working in the laboratory of American research, scientist Robert Gallo at the National Cancer Institute, one of the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland, and a group headed by American virologist Jay Levy at the University of California at San Francisco isolated a retrovirus from people with AIDS and from individuals having contact with people with AIDS. All three groups of scientists had isolated what is now known as HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Lorusso 2 In 1995 HIV was estimated to infect almost 20 million people worldwide, and several million of those people had developed AIDS. The disease is obviously an important social issue. AIDS has caused many to rethink their own social behavior. People are forced to use caution when involving themselves in sexual activity. They must use contraception to avoid the dangers of infection. Many people consider HIV infection and AIDS to be completely preventable because the routes of HIV transmission are so well known. To completely prevent transmission, however, dramatic changes in sexual behavior and drug dependence would have to occur throughout the world. Prevention efforts that promote sexual awareness through open discussion and condom distribution in public schools have been opposed due to fear that these efforts encourage sexual promiscuity among young adults. Similarly, needle-exchange programs have been criticized as promoting drug abuse. Governor Christine Todd Whitman vetoed a bill in New Jersey that tried to create a needle-exchange program. She was accused of being "compassionless". She replied that she could not allow drug addicts to continue to break the law. By distributing needles, she felt that she was, in fact, encouraging them to break the law. Prevention programs that identify HIV-infected individuals and notify